Intermediate Listening Transcripts

Lesson 1

Practice 1

Interviewer: Hi there - can I help you with anything?

Dominika: Oh, hi... I'm interested in the possibility of a career with TGS when I graduate. So I thought I'd come here and see if there are any opportunities suitable for people like me.

Interviewer: OK. I'll take a few details from you, and then we can contact you when we start our recruitment programme.

Dominika: Oh great.

Interviewer: So if you were to work with us, what area would you want to focus on?

Dominika: I'm hoping to make a career in the field of marketing. I'm quite an outgoing person.

Interviewer: OK. I'll just feed that into the computer. And what's your name?

Dominika: It's Dominika Alexandrovna.

Interviewer: OK... Can you just spell your surname for me?

Dominika: Sure. It's A-L-E-X-A-N-D-R-O-V-N-A.

Interviewer: Thanks - it's important to spell names correctly in business!

Dominika: Yeah!

Interviewer: And where are you from, Dominika?

Dominika: Well, I was born in Poland actually, and my mum's Polish, but I'm Russian because we moved to Moscow when I was very small for my father's job.

Interviewer: Well I must say, your English is very good.

Dominika: Thanks. I've been here a couple of years now.

Interviewer: OK. well, we usually get in touch with students a bit later on … and the easiest way for us to communicate with you is by email.

Dominika: Oh yes - I can give you my email address.

Interviewer: Fine. Then we can send you any links that you need to read and attach the application forms.

Dominika: Oh great ... well, my email address is Dom, D-O-M 54 at qmail.com

Interviewer: Right - thanks. As you know, we like to encourage young people to start working for us as soon as they graduate.

Dominika: Uh-huh.

Interviewer: Obviously our interest is related to the class of degree that you get.

Dominika: Well, I'm hoping to get a 2:1. My tutors are all pretty confident that I will.

Interviewer: That's good ... So, which university are you studying at?

Dominika: I'm just finishing my course at London University.

Interviewer: And I assume you're in the school of business.

Dominika: Yes. l've been doing a BA.

Interviewer: And is that part time?

Dominika: No - I'm a full-time student. I haven't actually had any experience of business yet. I want to concentrate on getting my qualifications first.

Interviewer: OK. How have you found the course?

Dominika: Oh - it's been really good. I've really improved my communication skills, and I've learned how to work in a team as well.

Interviewer: Well, that's good if you want to work in a global company. So when do you finish?

Dominika: Um - well, it's a 22-month course and I finish in two weeks time.

Interviewer: I see. So when would you be available for an interview?

Dominika: Well, I think the 21st of July. I'm taking a holiday on the 12th of July for a week and I'd need a couple of days to sort myself out after that.

pause

Interviewer: We're obviously interested in your business qualifications, but it also helps if you've done anything in your spare time that shows you have some business-related skills.

Dominika: Um - well, I did run a competition last year for the charity "Save the Children'.

Interviewer: That's just the sort of thing I mean... shows you have some management skills. Right ... and, apart from work and study, what do you like to do in your free time?

Dominika: I'm quite good at cooking. I make sure I eat well... you know, when you're a student, it's easy to forget to eat or to eat a lot of junk food. I do things like watch some of the cookery programmes on TV and then I copy them.

Interviewer: Great!

Dominika: I'm not very sporty, but I do go swimming at least twice a week. I like to keep in shape.

Interviewer: Have you done any other work in the past that would be relevant to a marketing career?

Dominika: Um, I did help my father with his business, but it wasn't really a job. I didn't get paid ... But I have been a children's tutor. I got that job through the people at my homestay.

Interviewer: That's good. So if you worked for us, how would you see your career developing?

Dominika: What do you mean?

Interviewer: Well, are you ambitious? Do you want to get to the top?

Dominika: I guess I'd like to get into management. You know.... I'd like to work my way up the ladder and end up as a project manager.

Interviewer: Well, that's about all I need to ask you for now. I'll let you walk around and look at some of our displays.

Dominika: Thanks.

Interviewer: Can I just ask how you first heard about the fair?

Dominika: Oh - from a friend. She told me about it last week, and then I looked it up on the Internet.

Interviewer: OK, thanks.

Practice 2 (Authentic)

WOMAN: Hello ... motor insurance department ...

MAN: Oh hello... I'd like to ask about insurance for my car.

WOMAN: Yes, of course. I'll just take a few details. What's your name?

MAN: Patrick Jones.

WOMAN: And your address?

MAN: It's 27 Bank Road.

WOMAN: 27 Bank Road. Is that in Greendale?

MAN: Yes.

WOMAN: And what's your daytime phone number?

MAN: My work number is 730453.

WOMAN: And could I ask what your occupation is?

MAN: Dentist.

WOMAN: OK... now a few details about your car ... What size is the engine?

MAN: It's 1200 ccs.

WOMAN: Thank you ... and the make and model?

MAN: It's a Hewton Sable.

WOMAN: Could you spell the model name please?

MAN: Yes ... S-A-B-L-E.

WOMAN: Ah yes... thanks. And when was it made?

MAN: 1997.

WOMAN: Lovely ... right... I presume you've had a previous insurer?

MAN: Yes.

WOMAN: Right... we need to know the name of the company.

MAN: Yes . .. it was Northern Star.

WOMAN: Thank you, and have you made any insurance claims in the last five years?

MAN: Yes... one in 1999.

WOMAN: And what was the problem?

MAN: It was stolen ... but ...

WOMAN: That's fine, Mr Jones... that's all we need to know at the moment.

pause

WOMAN: And will there be any other named drivers?

MAN: Just the one ...

WOMAN: And his name?

MAN: Simon Paynter.

WOMAN: Could you spell the surname please?

MAN: P-A-Y-N-T-E-R.

WOMAN: OK thank you ... And what relationship is he to you?

MAN: He's my brother-in-law.

WOMAN: And what will you or Mr Paynter be using the car for?

MAN: Well ... mainly for social use ...

WOMAN: Social use (murmuring). Will you be using it to travel to work?

MAN: Yes... sometimes.

WOMAN: ... Anything else?

MAN: No. That's it ...

WOMAN: And finally ... when would you like to start the insurance?

MAN: I'll need it from the 3rd of January.

WOMAN: Right... Mr Jones.. I'm getting a couple of quotes coming up on the computer now ... and the best bet looks like being with a company called Red Flag.

MAN: Yeah.

WOMAN: And that comes out at $450 per year...

MAN: Well... that seems OK... it's quite a bit lower than I've been paying up to now...

WOMAN: Great... so would you like me to go ahead with that?

MAN: Sure... why not?

WOMAN: How would you like to pay?

Homework Practice 1

Alan: Hello. Care for the Community. How can I help?

Philippa: Oh. good morning. I'm interested in doing some part-time work for your organisation. Am I speaking to the right person?

Alan: You are. I'm Alan Carpenter, head of human resources.

Philippa: Hello. My name's Philippa Tai...

Alan: Hang on, sorry, let me just get a pen so I can take this down. OK, fire away.

Philippa: My name's Philippa Tailor.

Alan: F-I-L-

Philippa: No. P-H-I-L-I-P-P-A.

Alan: Got that. And is it Taylor with a y?

Philippa: No, an i. T-A-I-L-O-R. Like the job.

Alan: Right. And what do you do at the moment, Philippa?

Philippa: I'm a student. I've just started my second, sorry, I mean, my third year at Brookfields University.

Alan: Oh, right, what course are you doing?

Philippa: A BA in Social Care Studies.

Alan: And have you got a number we can get you on?

Philippa: Sure, I'll give you my mobile. It's 0878 643 9884

Alan: 0878 643 9844.

Philippa: No, that's 884 at the end, not 844.

Alan: Sorry. Right, what next? Oh yes, your email address, if you have one.

Philippa: I do. It's flipt14 at chatbox.co.uk. That's F-L-I-P-T, and the number 14, all written as one word. At chatbox.co.uk.

Alan: Thanks. OK, and when would you be available to work? Days? Evenings?

Philippa: Well, days would be difficult, as I have classes then, so it would have to be evenings, I guess. I was thinking maybe a couple of evenings a week, or maybe three. But no more than that. Oh, and not Saturday or Sunday, if possible. Would that be any good?

Alan: Oh, that would be fine. And would you be able to start immediately if we had anything for you?

Philippa: Yes, I would.

Alan: Right, Philippa, so could you tell me why you're interested in working for us?

Philippa: Well, I'm hoping to apply for a career in social care when I graduate, and this would give me some work experience in this field.

Alan: Any particular area?

Philippa: Yes, I'm particularly interested in helping young people, teenagers who have learning difficulties. You know, providing them with the extra care and support they might not get at school or home.

Alan: And have you done anything like this before?

Philippa: Yes, in fact I've just spent the holiday working at a summer camp for children from disadvantaged backgrounds.

Alan: Did you enjoy it?

Philippa: Oh, yes. It was challenging but rewarding. That's the sort of thing I like, really. And I'd like to do more of that, if possible.

Alan: Great. And what makes you suitable for this kind of work, do you think?

Philippa: Well, I have very good communication skills. That's my strongest point, I reckon. And I'm a good listener. Sometimes you can help by just listening, you know?

Alan: I agree. Hmm, right, what I'd like to do, if it's OK with you, is fix an appointment so we can meet and talk about this some more. It wouldn't be anything formal, not an interview or anything like that. Er, how are you fixed for Tuesday 9th September at 4.30?

Philippa: Ah, I'm sorry, I have a tutorial then. Would Wednesday be possible?

Alan: The 10th? Yes, that would be fine. So we'll say Wednesday 10th at 4.30. Now, do you know where we are?

Homework Practice 2 (Authentic)

MAN: Good morning. Can I help you?

WOMAN: Yes. I've just been accepted on a course at the university and I'd like to try and arrange accommodation in the hall of residence.

MAN: Yes, certainly. Please sit down. What I'll do is fill in a form with you to find out a little more about your preferences and so forth.

WOMAN: Thank you.

MAN: So first of all, can I take your name?

WOMAN: It's Anu Bhatt.

MAN: Could you spell your name please?

WOMAN: Yes. A-N-U ... B-H-A double T.

MAN: Thanks, and could I ask your date of birth?

WOMAN: 31st March 1972.

MAN: Thank you. And where are you from?

WOMAN: India.

MAN: Oh right. And what will you be studying?

WOMAN: I'm doing a course in nursing.

MAN: Right, thank you. And how long would you want to stay in hall, do you think?

WOMAN: Well, it'll take three years but I'd only like to stay in hall for two. I'd like to think about living outside for the third year.

MAN: Fine. And what did you have in mind for catering? Do you want to cook for yourself or have all your meals provided, that's full board?

WOMAN: Is there something in between?

MAN: Yes. You can just have evening meal provided, which is half board.

WOMAN: That's what l'd prefer.

MAN: Yes, a lot of students opt for that. Now, with that in mind, do you have any special diet, anything we should know about?

WOMAN: Yes, I don't take red meat.

MAN: No red meat.

pause

MAN: Now, thinking about the room itself, we have a number of options. You can have a single study bedroom or you can have a shared one. These are both what we call simple rooms. The other alternative is to opt for a single bedsit which actually has more space and better facilities. There's about £20 a week difference between them.

WOMAN: Well, actually my grant is quite generous and I think the bedsit sounds the best option.

MAN: Lovely. I'll put you down for that and we'll see what availability is like. Now can I ask some other personal details which we like to have on record?

WOMAN: Yes, of course.

MAN: I wonder if you could let us know what your interests are. This might help us get a closer match for placing you in a particular hall.

WOMAN: Ummm. Well, I love the theatre.

MAN: Right.

WOMAN: And I enjoy sports, particularly badminton.

MAN: That's worth knowing. Now, what we finish with on the form is really a list from you of what your priorities are in choosing a hall and we'll do our best to take these into account.

WOMAN: Well, the first thing is I'd prefer a hall where there are other mature students, if possible.

MAN: Yes, we do have halls which tend to cater for slightly older students.

WOMAN: Ummm and I'd prefer to be out of town.

MAN: That's actually very good for you because we tend to have more vacancies in out-of-town halls.

WOMAN: Lucky!

MAN: Yes. Anything else?

WOMAN: Well, I would like somewhere with a shared area, a TV room for example, or something like that. It's a good way to socialise.

MAN: It certainly is.

WOMAN: That's it.

MAN: Now, we just need a contact telephone number for you.

WOMAN: Sure, I'll just find it. It's double 67549.

MAN: Great, so we'll be in contact with you as soon as possible ...

Lesson 2

Practice 1

*Narrator: You will hear someone talking about a colour exhibition.*

*Announcer: Now, I'd like to welcome onto our show today Darren Whitlock, who's going to tell us about a very vibrant exhibition.*

Darren: Thanks. Melanie. Yes, in fact, it's an exhibition called 'Eye for colour. It's packed with hands-on exhibits and interactive displays and it explores the endless ways in which colour shapes our world.

Now, there are 40 exhibits altogether that come under six main sections. Sadly. I haven't got time to tell you about them all today, so let me just give you a taste of what's on offer.

So to start off, there's a section simply entitled 'Seeing colour, which is, well - as the title suggests - about how we do just that. And it's a good starting point, because basically, you look at the museum gallery through a giant eyeball that's standing on a circular foot What you don't know is that this houses a 32" camera and screen, and the overall effect of these is quite amazing.

Another section that's very interesting is called 'Colour in culture. Here, there are a number of activities designed to illustrate the powerful links that exist between colour and certain aspects of our lifestyle, and this is done through a range of images and objects. You can visit the colour café that contains meals that really make you question how conditioned you are . How hungry do you feel if you're faced with a plate of pink and green fried eggs and blue sausages, for example? This section also includes activities that give visitors some idea of what it's like to view the world with a visual disability, which is something that many people have to do.

Then there's a 'Colour in nature' section, designed to illustrate the many amazing colours that we see everywhere around us - from rainbows to autumn leaves - and to give us an idea of what it's like surviving in the external environment. So you can try camouflaging yourself. This really is one for the kids - dressing up in a suit and then selecting a background where, to all intents and purposes, you disappear. And you can look at the world through the eyes of a dog or fish ….... what do these creatures really see?

I'd recommend ending the trip with a visit to the mood room, which explores the influence of colour on the way we feel. Here, you can lie back and listen to music as a projector subtly alters the lighting in the room and with it, the atmosphere. How does each colour affect your emotions? You'll be surprised!

pause

Now, while the exhibition's been running, the organisers have carried out a study of the favourite colours of their younger visitors. Over 2,600 children have responded to this, and there were lots and lots of colours to choose from, so the scores weren't high for each individual colour, even if the colours were - like blue - of average popularity. Clearly, the bold colours were the winners. Though purple, which I would have expected to be a high scorer, had just 1.73% of the votes. unlike deep pink, which came next to top. In the middle ground along with purple - which was still pretty popular compared to others - was lime green - the first shade of green to be anywhere near the top. One two-year-old commented that red was the only colour she knew, which is perhaps why that was more popular with children than anything else. Needless to say, all the tans and beiges came near the bottom. In fact, the lighter the colours, the less popular they were - even the light pinks.

So why did the kids go for these striking colours? As adults it's all about clothes. what we think suits us or is fashionable. But these youngsters are looking outward more and they go for colours that hit them. that they pick out over and above the rest. It's less to do with how they feel - whether it calms them down or whatever - and more about immediate impact. And, of course, there are associations with football that led a lot of both boys and girls to go for particular colours - in fact, more children seemed to comment on this than anything else, whereas adults would be more likely to go for something worn by someone they really like. So, all in all, it says a lot about…

Practice 2 (Authentic)

In this session in your training day we're going to look at some of the more specialised holidays we offer at BC Travel. Now, the travel business is very competitive and it's important to be aware of how the market's changing and developing. In terms of age groups, the over-65s are an important market, and one that's increasing steadily year on year. The fewest holidays are taken by the 31 to 42-year-olds, and that figure shows no sign of rising. The biggest market at present is still the youngest group, the 16 to 30s, but this group's also seen the biggest drop over the last few years, whereas there's a noticeable growth in the number of holidays taken by the 55 to 64-year-olds. As far as the 43 to 54-year-olds are concerned, bookings there are steady, but I have to say we haven't seen the increase we expected.

One trend we're noticing with nearly all age groups is the growing popularity of holidays in which clients do some kind of specialised activity. I'm not talking here about adventure holidays, where clients take part in high-risk activities like white water rafting just for the thrill of it. Activity holidays usually involve rather less high-risk sports, or things like art and music. They're not necessarily cheaper than ordinary holidays, often the opposite, in fact. But they do often take place outside the main tourist centres, which gives an opportunity for clients to find out more about the local people and customs, and many say this is one of the most positive features of these holidays. Of course, they offer the chance to develop a new skill or talent, but clients often say that more than this, it's the chance to create lasting relationships with other like-minded people that's the main draw.

Let me give you some examples of BC Travel activity holidays. Our painting holidays take place in four different centres in France and Italy and they're very popular with clients of all abilities from beginners onwards. We've got an excellent team of artists to lead the classes - some of them have been with us from the start, and five additional ones will be joining us this year so that we can offer a greater number of classes in each centre.

As far as cooking holidays are concerned, I know a lot of agents offer holidays where clients cook recipes related to one particular country, usually the one they're staying in, but we focus on dishes from a great many different ones. Apart from that you'll find the usual emphasis on good quality, organic ingredients - that's more or less a given nowadays - and there are generally some meat-free recipes included.

Our photography holidays take place in a wide range of countries from Iceland to Vietnam, and clients have the opportunity to see some stunning scenery. Groups are small, no more than eight, so clients can have one-on-one tuition during the holiday, and excursions are arranged with fully-trained guides. At the end of each holiday an exhibition is held of the photographs taken so that clients can see one another's work and receive valuable feedback from the tutor.

pause

Finally, let me tell you about our fitness holidays. In Ireland and Italy we run one-week general fitness classes for all ages and levels of fitness. Clients start the course with a consultation with a trainer, and together they draw up an individual programme. As well as improving general fitness, clients find that they end up losing much of the stress they've built up in their daily lives.

In Greece. we have a two-week holiday for clients who want to do something about their weight. This has all the features you'd expect, like a personalised diet programme, but one of its most popular features is that the exercise classes are all held on the beach. People say it's far preferable to being in a gym.

Finally, we offer several holidays in Morocco. One very popular one is the mountain biking holiday. Bikes are provided and there are different routes according to people's ability. We offer one which is tailored to the needs of families, which is particularly popular.

OK, so that's about all the time I have today, so thank you very much …

Homework Practice 1

RADIO HOST: Hello, and welcome to today's edition of Book Club. Later we'll be reviewing the latest novel by Lucy Armstrong, but first we're going to look at a new book which has been released to accompany the 'Colour my World' exhibition at the Science Museum. And Kirsten's here to tell us more.

KIRSTEN: Indeed, good morning Jason. Well, it's called Spectrum, it's by Alex Mackenzie, and I must say it's one of the most interesting books I've seen for a long time. There are fifteen chapters, and each one looks at a different aspect of colour.

RADIO HOST: Can you give us some examples?

KIRSTEN: Indeed. There's a fascinating chapter called The hidden jungle, which looks at the way an animal uses camouflage to conceal itself from predators, or make it invisible from other animals when it hunts them. By camouflage, of course, I mean their colour, shape, patterns on their skin and so on. This was a particularly striking chapter because of its amazing photography. Some of the animals are so well camouflaged that even when you know what you're looking for, it takes time to see the actual animal. So when you do finally find it, it's like an optical illusion.

RADIO HOST: Any others?

KIRSTEN: Well, yes. There's a great chapter called A question of choice. Have you ever wondered why some people like colours that others don't? Why, for example, would some people never buy an orange car while others would pay extra for one? The question of colour preferences is answered here. Not surprisingly, it's all to do with personality and the things that we associate colours with. For some, orange is a positive colour, the colour of fire and flames. For others, the first thing they think about when they see the colour orange is, well, an orange. What I liked about this chapter was a test where you see pictures of things, er, cars, mobile phones, clothes and so on, in groups of ten, identical except for their colour, and you have to grade them in the order in which you like them, based on their colour. A key then analyses your personality based on your answers.

This is popular psychology, of course, but the book also has some chapters devoted to serious science. One of these is called It's all in the mind. Now, you may or may not know this, but our eyes are like our fingerprints, nobody's are the same. Yet despite these differences, we all perceive colour in the same way. Light blue is always light blue, no matter how our eyes are structured. Why is this? Well, basically, it all comes down to the brain. To put it simply, our eyes just let in light, and our brains do the rest. The chapter explains in some detail how this happens, and describes a few experiments you can do at home to see for yourself how it works. It's fascinating stuff, and great fun too, of course.

pause

RADIO HOST: Now, I understand you found the last chapter of the book particularly interesting.

KIRSTEN: Absolutely. The final chapter is all about the way colour influences us when we go shopping. I don't mean the colour of the things we buy, but the colours that are around us when we're buying them. You see, although we tend to think that it is the range of products that encourages us to spend time and money in a shop or other retail outlet, things like lighting, space and colour play equally important roles. Now, colours in shops usually fall into two categories: warm colours such as red and orange, which are what we could call 'exciting' colours, and calming cool colours such as blue and green. And these categories are believed to have different effects on the shopper. Warm colours not only give you more energy. but there is evidence that they can also stimulate or bring on hunger, which is why they’re used so enthusiastically by fast food companies in and outside their outlets. On the negative side, if these colours are too bright, they can have a hurrying effect on shoppers, so good news for fast food outlets who want a fast turnover of customers, but best avoided if you want people to spend more time, and therefore more money, in your shop. Blue creates feelings of trust and security, which explains why it's a common colour in banks and other financial institutions, and customers associate the other 'cool' colour, green. with the environment. Which is why it's used in places like shops selling organic products or health food, and is also a popular choice for cafés and coffee shops.

RADIO HOST: And the chapter describes how different types of shopper respond to different colours, doesn't it?

KIRSTEN: Right. Now, I'm an impulse shopper. I don't always know what I want when I go to the shops, but if I see something I like, I’ll buy it. Research suggests that people like me respond better, that is, we're more likely to buy something when red is the predominant colour in the shop. Of course, our spending habits are not just limited to shops where red dominates, but it does help. Orange, by the way, can have a similar, although less pronounced, effect. Those on a restricted budget tend to respond well to light blue. However, for those on a really low income, with very little spending power, the colour where they feel most comfortable parting with their cash, appears to be pink. Consumers with plenty of money respond well in an environment where the predominant colour is purple. And that's not really surprising when you consider that purple is considered to be the king of colours.

RADIO HOST: Why's that?

KIRSTEN: Ah, well, you'll have to get the book to find out. But I can assure you, it's really revealing stuff.

RADIO HOST: Great, thanks Kirsten. Well, moving on, there seems to be...

Homework Practice 2 (Authentic)

Hello everyone. I'm Jake Stevens and I'm your rep here at the hotel. I'm sure you'll all have a great time here. So let me tell you a bit about what's on offer. I'll start by telling you about some of the excursions that are available for guests.

One thing you have to do while you're here is go dolphin watching. On our boat trips, we pretty well guarantee you'll see dolphins - if you don't you can repeat the trip free of charge. We organise daily trips for just 35 euros. Unfortunately there aren't any places left for this afternoon's trip, but come and see me to book for later in the week.

If you're energetic, I'd recommend our forest walk. It's a guided walk of about seven kilometres. There'll be a stop half way, and you'll be provided with a drink and sandwiches. There's some fairly steep climbs up the hills, so you need to be reasonably fit for this one, with good shoes, and bring a waterproof in case it rains. It's just 25 euros all inclusive, and it's every Wednesday.

Then on Thursdays we organise a cycle trip, which will give you all the fun of biking without the effort. We'll take you and your bike up to the top of Mount Larna, and leave you to bike back - it's a 700-metre drop in just 20 kilometres so this isn't really for inexperienced cyclists as you'll be going pretty fast. And if it's a clear day, you'll have fantastic views.

On our local craft tour you can find out about the traditional activities in the island. And the best thing about this trip is that it's completely free. You'll be taken to a factory where jewellery is made, and also a ceramics centre. If you want, you can buy some of the products but that's entirely up to you. The trip starts after lunch on Thursday, and you'll return by 6 pm.

If you're interested in astronomy you may already know that the island's one of the best places in the world to observe the night sky. We can offer trips to the observatory on Friday for those who are interested. They cost 90 euros per person and you'll be shown the huge telescopes and have a talk from an expert, who'll explain all about how they work. Afterwards we'll head down to Sunset Beach, where you can have a dip in the ocean if you want before we head off back to the hotel.

Finally, there's horse riding. This is organised by the Equestrian Centre over near Playa Cortino and it's a great experience if you're a keen horseback rider, or even if you've never been on a horse before. They take you down to the beach, and you can canter along the sand and through the waves. It costs 35 euros and it's available every day.

pause

So there's plenty to do in the daytime, but what about night life?

Well, the number one attraction's called 'Musical Favourites'. Guests enjoy a three-course meal and unlimited free drinks, and watch a fantastic show, starting with musicals set in Paris and then crossing the Atlantic to Las Vegas and finally Copacabana. At the end the cast members come down from the stage, still in their stunning costumes, and you'll have a chance to chat with them. It's hugely popular, so let me know now if you're interested because it's no good leaving it until the last minute. It's on Friday night. Tickets are just 50 euros each, but for an extra 10 euros you can have a table right by the stage.

If you'd like to go back in time, there's the Castle Feast on Saturday evening. It's held in a twelfth-century castle, and you eat in the great courtyard, with ladies in long gowns serving your food. You're given a whole chicken each, which you eat in the medieval way, using. your hands instead of cutlery, and you're entertained by competitions where the horseback riders attempt to knock one another off their horses. Then you can watch the dancers in the ballroom and join in as well if you want. OK, so now if anyone…

Lesson 3

Practice 1

STEVE: Good morning, guys, come on in.

MIKE: Thanks, Steve - it's good of you to spare us some of your time.

FLO: Yeah - we really appreciate it.

STEVE: That's OK. So you're studying sports science, are you?

MIKE: Yeah - we've only just started our course, actually - but as I explained on the phone, um, we have this seminar to do on sports injuries and we thought, who better to talk to than someone like yourself?

STEVE: Fine, OK. So what would you like to know?

FLO: Well, we thought we'd start by asking you about some of the treatments and services you offer here at the clinic.

STEVE: OK - well, as you know, physiotherapists deal with a whole range of different 'problem areas in the body.

MIKE: Yeah - what sort of techniques do you use to help people? I mean. I know you use massage - and I understand that's a key form of treatment...

STEVE: Yeah. Well, we call it manual therapy. you know, because it's a hands-on treatment and it just involves manipulating the soft tissue around a joint to relieve stiffness and pain.

FLO: Is that something that a lot of people come here for?

STEVE: Um - well, we generally decide what's best for the individual. This treatment can hurt sometimes, but it gets results more quickly than anything else.

FLO: And is that true whatever the injury?

STEVE: For sports injuries, generally, yes. But it doesn't stop there - you have to do other things as well.

MIKE: I've heard of something called 'stability training. Do you do that?

STEVE: Definitely. This is something that's designed to improve overall posture and body shape.

MIKE: So it's for the back and neck?

FLO: I think I've heard of this … it works on everything and gives you more power.

STEVE: Yeah - this is important - we improve your overall form, and that's quite good if you're tired or a bit weak.

FLO: Do you use any aids to boost performance?

STEVE: Occasionally we recommend a pad or block for a sports shoe, but not often.

MIKE: What about electrical equipment?

STEVE: We do sometimes use electrotherapy, which is supposed to stimulate the body to repair itself.

FLO: So that's actually using a small electrical charge?

STEVE: Yes, but there's growing evidence that the effect is limited.

MIKE: So I guess you don't use it much?

STEVE: No - we tend to avoid it most of the time.

MIKE: I see. What if people don't have an injury but just want to get better at their sport? I mean, sometimes people know they do something wrong when they …... swing a golf club, for example.

STEVE: Ah - then we film them and show them exactly what they do. It's called video analysis.

FLO: That must be really helpful.

STEVE: It's what everyone asks for ... it outstrips all our other services - because it's great for so many activities - not just sporting ones.

MIKE: Can you help people with sedentary activities?

STEVE: Absolutely - we offer workstation analysis because so many people have asked us for it.

FLO: Yeah, I spend hours on my laptop, and as the day goes on, my posture gets worse and worse!

STEVE: That's why we tend to suggest that people come at the end of the day for this.

MIKE: I guess the problem is that everyone's built differently. I think we both need some help there.

pause

FLO: That was really interesting. So what happens when someone comes to your clinic?

STEVE: Well, let's imagine you're the patient.

FLO: OK.

STEVE: A common situation will be that you sustained an injury, say, a year ago. So it's not new ... so you turn up with what we call an 'existing injury’.

FLO: Right. Like I sprained my ankle.

STEVE: Exactly - that's a typical one.

FLO: OK, and l've been to the doctor, and he's sent me to the hospital for an X-ray, and then I've been prescribed a cream or even painkillers.

STEVE: You've been through that medical route

FLO: OK. And I had to rest it for a while, of course, and that meant not doing any sport. So I've come to you because I'm fed up, basically.

STEVE: Yes - you need to get the joint moving again. So what we would do first is to assess the damage to the joint area.

FLO: I guess there's a whole range of problems that it could be, and some are more serious than others.

STEVE: And we can't afford to make mistakes. Now, once we know what the problem is, we select a treatment - perhaps one that we talked about earlier - plus we design an exercise plan for you.

FLO: That's great if you stick to it.

STEVE: Yes, that's the hard part for patients because they don't have time or they get bored. So we ask them to come back regularly - we make appointments - and we monitor the movement in the joint each time.

FLO: And you expect that to work?

STEVE: Yes, and it usually does - quite quickly, in fact, and then we can go on to rehabilitation.

FLO: You mean getting them back into the sporting activity they used to do?

STEVE: That's right. We have a fully equipped gym and we devise a training plan - well, a personal trainer does that, and they oversee the programme for at least a couple of months and make sure the patient carries it out.

FLO: It sounds really thorough. That's great, Steve, thanks.

Practice 2 (Authentic)

JESS: How are you getting on with your art project, Tom?

TOM: OK. Like, they gave us the theme of birds to base our project on, and I'm not really all that interested in wildlife. But I'm starting to get into it. I've pretty well finished the introductory stage.

JESS: So have I. When they gave us all those handouts with details of books and websites to look at, I was really put off, but the more I read, the more interested I got.

TOM: Me too. I found I could research so many different aspects of birds in art - colour. movement, texture. So I was looking forward to the Bird Park visit.

JESS: What a letdown! It poured with rain and we hardly saw a single bird. Much less use than the trip to the Natural History Museum.

TOM: Yeah. I liked all the stuff about evolution there. The workshop sessions with Dr Fletcher were good too, especially the brainstorming sessions.

JESS: I missed those because I was ill. I wish we could've seen the projects last year's students did.

TOM: Mm. I suppose they want us to do our own thing, not copy.

JESS: Have you drafted your proposal yet?

TOM: Yes, but I haven't handed it in. I need to amend some parts. I've realised the notes from my research are almost all just descriptions, I haven't actually evaluated anything. So I'll have to fix that.

JESS: Oh, I didn't know we had to do that. I'll have to look at that too. Did you do a timeline for the project?

TOM: Yes, and a mind map.

JESS: Yeah, so did I. I quite enjoyed that. But it was hard having to explain the basis for my decisions in my action plan.

TOM: What?

JESS: You know, give a rationale.

TOM: I didn't realise we had to do that. OK, I can add it now. And I've done the video diary presentation, and worked out what I want my outcome to be in the project.

JESS: Someone told me it's best not to be too precise about your actual outcome at this stage, so you have more scope to explore your ideas later on. So I'm going to go back to my proposal to make it a bit more vague.

TOM: Really? OK, I'll change that too then.

pause

TOM: One part of the project I'm unsure about is where we choose some paintings of birds and say what they mean to us. Like, I chose a painting of a falcon by Landseer. I like it because the bird's standing there with his head turned to one side, but he seems to be staring straight at you. But I can't just say it's a bit scary, can I?

JESS: You could talk about the possible danger suggested by the bird's look.

TOM: Oh, OK.

JESS: There's a picture of a fish hawk by Audubon I like. It's swooping over the water with a fish in its talons, and with great black wings which take up most of the picture.

TOM: So you could discuss it in relation to predators and food chains?

JESS: Well actually I think I'll concentrate on the impression of rapid motion it gives.

TOM: Right.

JESS: Do you know that picture of a kingfisher by van Gogh - it's perching on a reed growing near a stream.

TOM: Yes it's got these beautiful blue and red and black shades.

JESS: Mm hm. I've actually chosen it because I saw a real kingfisher once when I was little, I was out walking with my grandfather, and I've never forgotten it.

TOM: So we can use a personal link?

JESS: Sure.

TOM: OK. There's a portrait called William Wells, I can't remember the artist but it's a middle-aged man who's just shot a bird. And his expression, and the way he's holding the bird in his hand suggests he's not sure about what he's done. To me it's about how ambiguous people are in the way they exploit the natural world.

JESS: Interesting. There's Gauguin's picture Vairumati. He did it in Tahiti. It's a woman with a white bird behind her that is eating a lizard, and what I'm interested in is what idea this bird refers to. Apparently, it's a reference to the never-ending cycle of existence.

TOM: Wow. I chose a portrait of a little boy, Giovanni de Medici. He's holding a tiny bird in one fist. I like the way he's holding it carefully so he doesn't hurt it.

JESS: Ah right.

Homework Practice 1

SARA: Hi, come in. I'm Sara. Welcome to Chorleywood Pharmaceuticals. It's Matt, isn't it?

MATT: That's right. Thanks for agreeing to see me.

SARA: You're welcome. I understand you're interested in the work we do here, right?

MATT: Yes, I am. I'm doing some research into modern medicine for my thesis, and I was hoping you could tell me a bit about painkillers, give me a bit of background information, and so on.

SARA: Sure, well, it's a huge area. Let's start by looking at the different types of painkiller we make here, and we'll take it from there. OK?

MATT: Great.

SARA: OK, well, here at Chorleywood, we produce five commercially-available painkillers, or analgesics as they're more correctly known, each one based on a different active ingredient. Those ingredients are paracetamol. ibuprofen, aspirin, codeine and morphine. I assume you've heard of them all.

MATT: I have. I use paracetamol when I get headaches.

SARA: Right, in fact it's the best all-round analgesic for things like headaches and most non-nerve pains. It's believed to work by controlling certain chemicals in the brain so we feel less pain. It's safe to take regularly for long periods, but overdosing on it can have very serious side effects. including liver failure.

MATT: Right, I've heard that.

SARA: Then there's ibuprofen. This is an anti-inflammatory, which means that unlike paracetamol, it directly targets the affected area or areas. Basically, it works by reducing swelling. So, if you've twisted your ankle, for example, and it's swelling up, ibuprofen will be very effective at reducing that swelling.

MATT: Like in a sports injury, for example.

SARA: Exactly. Which is why it's so popular with sportsmen and women. And alongside paracetamol, it's the painkiller that doctors recommend for children. The one disadvantage over paracetamol is that while you're taking it, you may get an upset stomach, because it has irritant qualities.

MATT: Aspirin can affect you in the same way, can't it?

SARA: Right. Aspirin is believed to work a bit like paracetamol, but with side effects similar to those in ibuprofen. A bit stronger, in fact, which is why doctors and pharmacists advise that you avoid giving it to anyone under 12.

MATT: What about the others you mentioned? Codeine and morphine.

SARA: Codeine is much stronger than the others, so it's usually diluted, that is, it's usually combined, with paracetamol in pill form. The problem with codeine is that it can cause dependency. In other words, your body comes to rely on it. So once you stop taking it, you may feel a little ill for a while. Nothing serious, just weak, shaky, that kind of thing.

MATT: And morphine?

SARA: Well, as you probably know, morphine is the most powerful analgesic available. It's strictly prescription- only, and even then your doctor will need to see you on a regular basis to check you're getting the right dose and to see how you're responding to it. It should only be used as part of a long-term pain management programme. It's highly addictive of course, and when you stop the programme, the after-effects can be extremely bad.

pause

MATT: So, what's the most popular painkiller?

SARA: That would be aspirin. In fact, almost 40 percent of the products we make here are aspirin based.

MATT: It's been around for a while, hasn't it?

SARA: Indeed. In fact, we could trace its origins right back to ancient Greece, about two and a half thousand years ago.

MATT: Wow, I didn't know it went back that far.

SARA: Well, obviously it wasn't known as aspirin then, and it wasn't in pill form. People took dried willow tree leaves. which they knew had an analgesic effect, and made them into tea, which they then gave to women during childbirth. Nobody really knew what was in the leaves that helped to ease pain until over two thousand years later, in, er, 1823, I think it was, when Italian scientists identified and extracted the active ingredient, salicin.

MATT: Salicin, that's S-A-L. er…

SARA: S-A-L-I-C-I-N. And later, it was also found in a particular type of flower called the meadowsweet. That was in Germany in 1838. Then in 1853, French scientists succeeded in making a liquid form of salicin, which they called salicylic acid, but the patients they tested it on complained that it caused bad stomach pains.

MATT: So, a bit counter-productive then!

SARA: Exactly! However, in 1893, German scientists discovered that mixing a chemical called acetyl into the salicylic acid greatly reduced its irritating side effects. And then in 1897, the German pharmaceutical company Bayer developed a process for creating a synthetic version of this acetyl salicylic acid.

MATT: Acetyl salicylic acid. That's quite a mouthful!

SARA: Which is why they shortened it to aspirin. That year, they began testing their product on patients, and two years later, when these clinical trials were complete, aspirin as we know it now was launched onto the market.

MATT: Well, thank you for the history lesson. That's actually really useful. I might be able to use some of that. Now, I read recently that aspirin…

Homework Practice 2 (Authentic)

JAKE: Now that we've done all the research into bike-sharing schemes in cities around the world, we need to think about how we're going to organise our report.

AMY: Right. I think we should start by talking about the benefits. I mean it's great that so many cities have introduced these schemes where anyone can pick up a bike from dozens of different locations and hire it for a few hours. It makes riding a bike very convenient for people.

JAKE: Yes, but the costs can add up and that puts people on low incomes off in some places.

AMY: I suppose so, but if it means more people in general are cycling rather than driving, then because they're increasing the amount of physical activity they do, it's good for their health.

JAKE: OK. But isn't that of less importance? I mean, doesn't the impact of reduced emissions on air pollution have a more significant effect on people's health?

AMY: Certainly, in some cities bike-sharing has made a big contribution to that. And also helped to cut the number of cars on the road significantly.

JAKE: Which is the main point.

AMY: Exactly. But I'd say it's had less of an impact on noise pollution because there are still loads of buses and lorries around.

JAKE: Right.

AMY: Shall we quickly discuss the recommendations we're going to make?

JAKE: In order to ensure bike-sharing schemes are successful?

AMY: Yes.

JAKE: OK. Well, while I think it's nice to have really state-of-the art bikes with things like GPS, I wouldn't say they're absolutely necessary.

AMY: But some technical things are really important - like a fully functional app - so people can make payments and book bikes easily. Places which haven't invested in that have really struggled.

JAKE: Good point ... Some people say there shouldn't be competing companies offering separate bike-sharing schemes, but in some really big cities, competition's beneficial and anyway one company might not be able to manage the whole thing.

AMY: Right. Deciding how much to invest is a big question. Cities which have opened loads of new bike lanes at the same time as introducing bike-sharing schemes have generally been more successful - but there are examples of successful schemes where this hasn't happened... What does matter though - is having a big publicity campaign.

JAKE: Definitely. If people don't know how to use the scheme or don't understand its benefits, they won't use it. People need a lot of persuasion to stop using their cars.

pause

AMY: Shall we look at some examples now? And say what we think is good or bad about them.

JAKE: I suppose we should start with Amsterdam as this was one of the first cities to have a bike-sharing scheme.

AMY: Yes. There was already a strong culture of cycling here. In a way it's strange that there was such a demand for bike-sharing because you'd have thought most people would have used their own bikes.

JAKE: And yet it's one of the best-used schemes ... Dublin's an interesting example of a success story.

AMY: It must be because the public transport system's quite limited.

JAKE: Not really - there's no underground, but there are trams and a good bus network. I'd say price has a lot to do with it. It's one of the cheapest schemes in Europe to join.

AMY: But the buses are really slow - anyway the weather certainly can't be a factor!

JAKE: No - definitely not. The London scheme's been quite successful.

AMY: Yes - it's been a really good thing for the city. The bikes are popular and the whole system is well maintained but it isn't expanding quickly enough.

JAKE: Basically, not enough's been spent on increasing the number of cycle lanes. Hopefully that'll change.

AMY: Yes. Now what about outside Europe?

JAKE: Well bike-sharing schemes have taken off in places like Buenos Aires.

AMY: Mmm. They built a huge network of cycle lanes to support the introduction of the scheme there, didn't they? It attracted huge numbers of cyclists where previously there were hardly any.

JAKE: An example of good planning.

AMY: Absolutely. New York is a good example of how not to introduce a scheme. When they launched it, it was more than ten times the price of most other schemes.

JAKE: More than it costs to take a taxi. Crazy. I think the organisers lacked vision and ambition there.

AMY: I think so too. Sydney would be a good example to use. I would have expected it to have grown pretty quickly here.

JAKE: Yes. I can't quite work out why it hasn't been an instant success like some of the others. It's a shame really.

AMY: I know. OK so now we've thought about ...

Lesson 4

Practice 1

JUNI: Hi, Milton - I didn't see you this afternoon. You missed a really good talk.

MILTON: Oh, did 12 That's a pity - it was Mr Brand's talk about fossils, wasn't it?

JUNI: Yeah. I hadn't really expected to enjoy it, but it was fascinating.

MILTON: I thought it would be. I'd been planning to go to the talk, but then when I was in the lab this morning, I realised 1 hadn't done any reading for tomorrow's history seminar.

JUNI: Well, I think he's going to repeat it some time, but it may be next year.

MILTON: Perhaps you could tell me a bit about it, then?

JUNI: Well, he talked about himself in the first part.

MILTON: I saw on the notice that went round that he went to America to study and met a famous anthropologist.

JUNI: Yeah, that's right, but he said he got interested in fossils well before then - when he was about six, in fact - and he found the most amazing fossil on a school visit to a national park. He showed it to us - he still has it - though he said he wasn't looking for it at the time!

MILTON: Most kids wouldn't recognise a fossil if they saw one!

JUNI: I know - they want to watch adventure films or play with model dinosaurs. But apparently he spent his school holidays hunting for fossils in the farm pits near his home.

MILTON: So does he lecture on the subject now?

JUNI: Yes - but he also runs a business organising fossil hunts for groups of adults and children.

MILTON: Aw... Wouldn't it be great if we could do something like that?

JUNI: He showed us a lot of pictures ...

MILTON: So they all go out in a group to the cliffs or somewhere with little hammers, do they?

JUNI: Yeah - apparently, the kids tell everyone that's the best bit - tapping the stones to see if anything's there.

MILTON: Do they know what they're looking for?

JUNI: Yeah. They get shown some examples of what they might find first.

MILTON: And do they actually get to find any fossils?

JUNI: Yes - Mr Brand showed some photos of children proudly holding up their fossils for the camera at the end of the day.

MILTON: If they take them home, I bet they become prized possessions in their rooms as well!

JUNI: For sure. He said he never stops being amazed at how close you can be to a fossil.

MILTON: I guess the children aren't aware of history that much.

JUNI: No. but, for them, the key thing they learn is that if they keep looking, they will find something.

MILTON: Mmm - you have to wait... it's not for people who want instant success. So why don't we go on one of these hunts?

JUNI: Well, yes, I'm quite keen. The hunts are fully booked until the end of the year, unfortunately.

MILTON: I could talk to some of the other students and see if we can form a group.

JUNI: That's a good idea. I'll give him a call. Then, if we have enough people, we might be able to get him to do an extra one for us.

MILTON: I'll look on his website when I get back to the dorm just to get a bit more information.

pause

MILTON: So what did he talk about in the second part?

JUNI: Well, that was more theoretical, but just as interesting, and there were lots of visuals. You know how fossils are formed?

MILTON: Not exactly. We all know they're the remains of living organisms, sort of entombed in rock, but I don't know how they get to be there.

JUNI: Well, he basically went through the stages that make that happen.

MILTON: So did he talk about the conditions that bring about fossilisation?

JUNI: Yes - and he used a fish as an example. Here. I'll show you my notes.

MILTON: Wow, these are great diagrams, Juni!

JUNI: Thanks.

MILTON: OK... er, Stage 1 ... Ah yes, that's right - a lot of fossils form underwater, don't they?

JUNI: Yeah - like as soon as a fish dies, it sinks to the bottom of the ocean, and as long as a predator doesn't come along it just lies there.

MILTON: Undisturbed.

JUNI: That's right.

MILTON: And since the ocean bed's soft - well, much of it is, plus it's muddy as well - the fish gradually gets covered over and can't be seen any more.

JUNI: Mmm. Apparently for a fossil to begin to form, you also need conditions where the light is minimal and there's very little oxygen.

MILTON: … so the organic matter doesn't break down too quickly.

JUNI: Yes, and you know there are fault lines, even on the sea bed, and the rocks can move.

MILTON: Yeah, so once the fish gets buried - I guess that has to happen quite quickly?

JUNI: Mm-hm, all the sand and sediment piles up into layers, and the huge pressure and weight of all the layers compacts it and you mave on to Stage 2, where it gets heavier and heavier until it becomes hard rock.

MILTON: There'd be no water left, so the fish skeleton would be entombed, It can stay like that for millions of years, can't it?

JUNI: It can, but during that time, the bone in the skeleton is replaced by minerals.

MILTON: I see, and these minerals sort of mimic the shape of the skeleton.

JUNI: Yes - and that's how you get a fossil.

MILTON: But how do we find them if they're buried so far down?

JUNI: Again, it's all down to the movement of the Earth's plates. In the last stage, many millions of years after the fossil has formed, the rock may lift and eventually be above sea level.

MILTON: Meanwhile, the surface of the rock wears away?

JUNI: Yes, another natural process called erosion wears away the rock until one day, you can see the tip of the fossil.

MILTON: And you break open the rock - and there it is.

JUNI: It's incredible really.

Practice 2 (Authentic)

DIANA: So, Tim, we have to do a short summary of our work experience on a farm.

TIM: Right. My farm was great, but arranging the work experience was hard. One problem was it was miles away and I don't drive. And also, I'd really wanted a placement for a month, but I could only get one for two weeks.

DIANA: I was lucky, the farmer let me stay on the farm so I didn't have to travel. But finding the right sort of farm to apply to wasn't easy.

TIM: No, they don't seem to have websites, do they. I found mine through a friend of my mother's, but it wasn't easy.

DIANA: No.

TIM: My farm was mostly livestock, especially sheep. I really enjoyed helping out with them. I was up most of one night helping a sheep deliver a lamb ...

DIANA: On your own?

TIM: No, the farmer was there, and he told me what to do. It wasn't a straightforward birth, but I managed. It was a great feeling to see the lamb stagger to its feet and start feeding almost straightaway, and to know that it was OK.

DIANA: Mm.

TIM: Then another time a lamb had broken its leg, and they got the vet in to set it, and he talked me through what he was doing. That was really useful.

DIANA: Yes, my farm had sheep too. The farm was in a valley and they had a lowland breed called Suffolks, although the farmer said they'd had other breeds in the past.

TIM: So were they bred for their meat?

DIANA: Mostly, yes. They're quite big and solid.

TIM: My farm was up in the hills and they had a different breed of sheep, they were Cheviots.

DIANA: Oh, I heard their wool's really sought after.

TIM: Yes. It's very hardwearing and they use it for carpets.

DIANA: Right.

TIM: I was interested in the amount of supplements they add to animals' feed nowadays. Like, even the chickens got extra vitamins and electrolytes in their feed.

DIANA: Yes, I found that too. And they're not cheap. But my farmer said some are overpriced for what they are. And he didn't give them as a matter of routine, just at times when the chickens seemed to particularly require them.

TIM: Yes, mine said the same. He said certain breeds of chickens might need more supplements than the others, but the cheap and expensive ones are all basically the same.

DIANA: Mm.

TIM: So did your farm have any other livestock, Diana?

DIANA: Yes, dairy cows. I made a really embarrassing mistake when I was working in the milk shed. Some cows had been treated with antibiotics, so their milk wasn't suitable for human consumption, and it had to be put in a separate container. But Lgot mixed up, and I poured some milk from the wrong cow in with the milk for humans, so the whole lot had to be thrown away. The farmer wasn't too happy with me.

TIM: l asked my farmer how much he depended on the vet to deal with health problems. I'd read reports that the livestock's health is being affected as farmers are under pressure to increase production. Well, he didn't agree with that, but he said that actually some of the stuff the vets do, like minor operations, he'd be quite capable of doing himself.

DIANA: Yeah. My farmer said the same. But he reckons vets' skills are still needed.

pause

DIANA: Now we've got to give a bit of feedback about last term's modules - just short comments, apparently. Shall we do that now?

TIM: OK. So medical terminology.

DIANA: Well, my heart sank when I saw that, especially right at the beginning of the course. And I did struggle with it.

TIM: I'd thought it'd be hard, but actually I found it all quite straightforward. What did you think about diet and nutrition?

DIANA: OK, I suppose.

TIM: Do you remember what they told us about pet food and the fact that there's such limited checking into whether or not it's contaminated? I mean in comparison with the checks on food for humans - I thought that was terrible.

DIANA: Mm. I think the module that really impressed me was the animal disease one, when we looked at domesticated animals in different parts of the world, like camels and water buffalo and alpaca. The economies of so many countries depend on these, but scientists don't know much about the diseases that affect them.

TIM: Yes, I thought they'd know a lot about ways of controlling and eradicating those diseases, but that's not the case at all I loved the wildlife medication unit. Things like helping birds that have been caught in oil spills. That's something I hadn't thought about before.

DIANA: Yeah, I thought I might write my dissertation on something connected with that.

TIM: Right. So …

Homework Practice 1

CLAUDIA: Hi, Dave. How are you? I tried calling you last night, but your phone was off.

DAVE: Oh, hi Claudia. Sorry about that, but I went to a talk by Professor Brian Jeffcott. You know, the guy who does those archaeology programmes on television.

CLAUDIA: Oh, him. I think he's great.

DAVE: Me too. What I like about him is that he's the complete opposite of how you imagine these archaeology types to be, you know. He's young, funny, loads of energy. And he's so passionate about his subject. He's the sort of person who can make even boring things sound fascinating. I wish all lecturers were like that.

CLAUDIA: So, what was it about?

DAVE: Well, in the first part of the talk he explained that researchers have recently discovered when Neolithic structures were built. You know, stone circles, hill forts, places where people lived and worked, that kind of thing.

CLAUDIA: But I thought they already knew that.

DAVE: Sort of, but until now they only had a rough idea of when these structures went up, usually to within a few hundred years. But Professor Jeffcott showed us how new carbon- dating techniques and advanced computer programmes are allowing them to narrow that down to within ten or twenty years. And it's led to an interesting conclusion, which formed the second part of his talk.

CLAUDIA: Which is?

DAVE: The research team generally assumed that Neolithic structures were built over a period of two or three thousand years. However, they now know that most of them went up over a 75-year period, about five and a half thousand years ago. And that's important because it means that they now have a more precise idea of when people went from being nomadic, that is, wandering from place to place, to being more static.

CLAUDIA: Staying put, building permanent settlements, that kind of thing?

DAVE: Exactly. People only really build when they re settled. And that meant that their lifestyle altered in other ways. They went from being hunter-gatherers to being farmers. They started growing cereals, grains, that kind of thing. Well, the researchers knew that already, but what was news to them was how quickly Neolithic people took to other things at the same time. Within just a few years they learnt how to make pottery, domesticate animals, build timber houses, all sorts of things. They'd always assumed that these were developed over hundreds, thousands of years.

CLAUDIA: Well, that's all fascinating stuff, but you're studying architecture. Why the interest?

DAVE: Ah, well, next week my class is going on a field project to look at prehistoric construction methods. We want to find out if they have any relevance today, you know, if ancient methods can be applied to modern structures. And then I'll be using that as the basis for my dissertation. So, we'll be visiting the Knowles Hill project. Heard of it?

CLAUDIA: That's the place where they've reconstructed an entire Neolithic village, isn't it? It was on TV a few weeks ago.

That's the one.

pause

DAVE: Anyway, what I need to do next is find out more about the period, get a bit more background information.

CLAUDIA: Well, we can do that now. Let's see. Neolithic period, er, history, OK, there are loads of websites. Let's try this one. Oh, this lists key moments in, and features of, the Neolithic period in Britain. Any good?

DAVE: I guess so.

CLAUDIA: So, the Neolithic period, which occurred towards the end of the Stone Age, started approximately 9,000 years ago, and lasted for about 5,000 years. At first, people lived in nomadic tribes, and wandered throughout Europe hunting and gathering.

DAVE: Nothing I didn't know already, unfortunately.

CLAUDIA: Ah, but about 8,000 years ago, Britain became separated from mainland Europe when the sea covered low land between what is now England and France. That must be pretty important.

DAVE: Hmm, so people couldn't get back to mainland Europe. Which could mean they started evolving differently, socially and culturally, that is.

CLAUDIA: It doesn't say, but it does tell us that between five and six thousand years ago, they started building houses that were permanent rather than temporary, which indicates they were becoming more settled. A connection, do you think?

DAVE: Possibly. What else?

CLAUDIA: Other solid structures started appearing. Stone circles like Stonehenge, for example. Actually, that came a bit later, about four thousand five hundred years ago. Oh, it says here that it was built in several different stages over many hundreds of years. I didn't know that. I'd always assumed it all went up at once.

DAVE: Me too. That is interesting.

CLAUDIA: OK, and this was also the time when pottery was first used to make bowls and cups. And tools made from stone for building and farming became more sophisticated. And new agricultural techniques also appeared. Wow, they were busy!

DAVE: They certainly were. Does it say anything about why …

Homework Practice 2 (Authentic)

HOLLY: Hello Dr Green - I'm here to talk to you about my work placement.

TUTOR: Oh yes, it's Holly, isn't it?

HOLLY: Yes.

TUTOR: So, which work placement have you chosen?

HOLLY: I decided to go for the Orion Stadium placement. The event I'll be managing is one where I'm helping to set up a sports competition for primary school children.

TUTOR: Yup. That's always a popular placement - even though it can be tougher than you think working with children.

HOLLY: I know, but it's the fresh air that attracts me - organising something indoors doesn't have the same appeal, even though it might be fun.

TUTOR: OK, so obviously safety's going to be one of your key concerns for this event.

HOLLY: Yes, I've already thought about that. I'll need to make sure none of the equipment's damaged.

TUTOR: Ah well, you'll be working with schools, so the equipment will be their responsibility. However, the grounds and what goes on there will be yours.

HOLLY: Oh I see - that'll include keeping everyone within the boundary once they're in their kit and on the field?

TUTOR: Exactly - you'll need to inspect areas like changing rooms as well for anything someone can trip over, but your main priority will be not to lose anyone!

HOLLY: Right. I'll need staff to help with that.

TUTOR: And don't forget about the spectators.

HOLLY: Mmm. I was thinking that many of them will be parents, who could help run the event.

TUTOR: I wouldn't rely on that. They'll be more interested in filming their children than volunteering.

HOLLY: I'll need to make sure they don't interfere with events doing that!

TUTOR: And that's not always easy, especially when a proud parent's trying to get a snap of their child and you want them to move elsewhere.

HOLLY: OK. What about the scheduling?

TUTOR: With sporting events there are all sorts of things that can alter the timetable - like rain, for instance - though so far, we've always been lucky with that.

HOLLY: Yeah, and I was thinking about what to do if someone got hurt as well. I know that last year that caused a terrible delay.

TUTOR: You have to be prepared for such things.

HOLLY: Oh. What if a match ends in a draw - do you let the teams keep going until someone wins?

TUTOR: That'll be up to you - and again, you need to plan for it.

HOLLY: Right.

pause

TUTOR: Now, the aim of your work placement is to give you the opportunity to develop the skills that an events manager needs. So, let's talk about those a bit.

HOLLY: Well, I think my communication skills are pretty good. I can talk on the phone to people and book venues and that kind of thing.

TUTOR: Good - just remember it isn't only about what you say. If you meet someone face-to-face and want to persuade them to be a sponsor, for example ...

HOLLY: Oh, I'll dress up for that! Sure.

TUTOR: Good. Let's go on to think about your organisational skills. You're working in a very people-based industry and that means things won't always go to plan.

HOLLY: I guess it's being prepared to make changes that matters.

TUTOR: That's right. You may have to make an on-the-spot change to a timetable because of a problem you hadn't anticipated ...

HOLLY: ... just do it! OK.

TUTOR: How's your time management these days?

HOLLY: I'm working on it - I'm certainly better when I have a deadline, which is why this work suits me.

TUTOR: Yes, but it's how you respond as that deadline approaches!

HOLLY: I know l've got to look calm even if I'm in a panic.

TUTOR: Just think to yourself - no one must know I'm under pressure.

HOLLY: Yeah - even though I'm multi-tasking like crazy!

TUTOR: Another skill that events managers need is creativity. Often your client has what we call the 'big picture' idea, but it's up to the events manager to think of all the fine points that go to making it work.

HOLLY: Right, so I need to listen carefully to that idea and then fill in all the gaps.

TUTOR: That's right. And you'll have a team working under you, so another key skill is leadership. Your team may have lots of ideas too, but you've got to make the ultimate choices. Do we have refreshments inside or out, for example?

HOLLY: Isn't it better to be democratic?

TUTOR: It's a nice idea, but you have the ultimate responsibility. So, believe in what you think best. Be prepared to say 'yes', that's a good idea but it won't work here.

HOLLY: I see what you mean. What about the networking side of things? I know it's an area that a lot of students worry about because we don't have much experience to offer others.

TUTOR: But even without it - you can still be an interesting person with useful ideas. And the more people you impress, the better.

HOLLY: I guess that will help me when I apply for a real job.

TUTOR: Exactly - think ahead - remember what your ambitions are and keep them in mind.

HOLLY: Definitely.

Lesson 5

Practice 1

Good morning, everyone. So - we’re looking at animation technology today … something we're all very familiar with from seeing blockbuster films such as Toy Story and Shrek. But, um. I'd like to start by looking at how animation began, and how the technical side of things developed.

Not long after the invention of the first camera by Thomas Edison in 1889, a photographer by the name of J. Stuart Blackton developed the first technique for animated film. It consisted of a series of drawings and, er, he drew a number of "funny faces and then filmed one after the other. This gave the impression of motion and changing facial expression. But it was a very slow process and a long way from being anything like a film. Then a Frenchman, Emile Cohl, moved things on a bit by using scenes and figures cut out of paper instead. This meant things could be done more quickly. It was possible to build up a small scene, though a very large number of cut-outs were required to do this. And, of course, it was all still taking place during the era of silent film.

Eventually, Wait Disney came along. He wanted his film characters to look more 'real and so he found ways to do this. Er, it took weeks to produce a single film sequence, but in 1928, the first talking animated film came out that had been made using hand-painted slides known as 'cels' - these were placed one on top of the other and then quickly removed. And that first film launched the career of Mickey Mouse - if you remember him. Disney then went on to produce the first full-length colour animated film in 1937 - Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs - which earned him the first of his 37 Oscars.

Animation changed very little over the next 50 years or so until the advent of computers and the work of a company called Pixar. Pixar Animation Studios was a graphics group until Steve Jobs invested 10 million dollars in the company. Now it has become a Hollywood icon, with earnings of over 6.3 billion dollars and numerous film awards. In fact, Pixar's films act rather like a timeline of technological developments in computer graphics. So, let's have a look at some of them.

Pixar's debut feature film was Toy Story, and this was the first film to be completely animated by computers. When it was released in 1995, many features of the film were seen as outstanding. It is still considered to be one of the most significant achievements in the history of film animation. A later film. Monsters, Inc., which came out in 2001, added a new animation feature, which was the on-screen representation of animal fur. This helped to enhance the appeal of one of the film's central characters. Two years after that, the award- winning film Finding Nemo - a tale of the lives of some very appealing and visually enchanting fish - pioneered new techniques in digital lighting, which were used to create realistic-looking water. This was an essential feature of the film.

Many scenes took place underwater and relied on a certain level of brilliance and clarity throughout. Had they got it wrong, the entire effect would have been lost. And a film called The Incredibles in 2004 brought with it credible human characters and advances in the simulation of crowds.

So each of these films introduced new types of physical phenomena, and these days 3D animation can re-create most real-worid scenarios. Yet cinema audiences have increasingly high expectations. So how do companies like Pixar plan to meet the challenges of the future?

Well, firstly, studios still struggle to create digital humans that audiences like. Up to now, they've been criticised for looking robotic. So the focus for producers now is on simulating more realistic human skin and more detailed facial movement. Both developments are bringing close the day when there will be convincing digital actors on screen.

A second aspect that Pixar hope to improve on is the speed at which they can actually produce each frame of animated film. Things have moved on, but the time it takes to do this is basically staying the same. Faster computers help, but work done by companies involved in the production of video games is also hoped to improve things.

A further challenge is colour. Pixar is looking ahead to how it can better use its colour palettes and produce more brilliant images. And lastly, the company is hoping to build on methods to stylise its images in films. It seems reality has been the goal for many years, but now they are also trying to break new ground and come up with other concepts. The result could be a new breed of animated films that don't look real or like anything that has gone before.

Now let's take a closer look at …

Practice 2 (Authentic)

Labyrinths have existed for well over 4,000 years. Labyrinths and labyrinthine symbols have been found in regions as diverse as modern-day Turkey, Ireland, Greece, and India. There are various designs of labyrinth but what they all have in common is a winding spiral path which leads to a central area. There is one starting point at the entrance and the goal is to reach the central area. Finding your way through a labyrinth involves many twists and turns, but it's not possible to get lost as there is only one single path.

In modern times, the word labyrinth has taken on a different meaning and is often used as a synonym for a maze. A maze is quite different as it is a kind of puzzle with an intricate network of paths. Mazes became fashionable in the 15th and 16th centuries in Europe, and can still be found in the gardens of great houses and palaces. The paths are usually surrounded by thick, high hedges so that it's not possible to see over them. Entering a maze usually involves getting lost a few times before using logic to work out the pattern and find your way to the centre and then out again. There are lots of dead ends and paths which lead you back to where you started. The word 'maze' is believed to come from a Scandinavian. word for a state of confusion. This is where the word 'amazing' comes from.

Labyrinths, on the other hand, have a very different function. Although people now often refer to things they find complicated as labyrinths, this is not how they were seen in the past. The winding spiral of the labyrinth has been used for centuries as a metaphor for life's journey. It served as a spiritual reminder that there is purpose and meaning to our lives and helped to give people a sense of direction. Labyrinths are thought to encourage a feeling of calm and have been used as a meditation and prayer tool in many cultures over many centuries.

The earliest examples of the labyrinth spiral pattern have been found carved into stone, from Sardinia to Scandinavia, from Arizona to India to Africa. In Europe, these spiral carvings date from the late Bronze Age. The Native American Pima tribe wove baskets with a circular labyrinth design that depicted their own cosmology. In Ancient Greece, the labyrinth spiral was used on coins around four thousand years ago. Labyrinths made of mosaics were commonly found in bathhouses, villas and tombs throughout the Roman Empire.

In Northern Europe, there were actual physical labyrinths designed for walking on. These were cut into the turf or grass, usually in a circular pattern. The origin of these walking labyrinths remains unclear, but they were probably used for fertility rites which may date back thousands of years. Eleven examples of turf labyrinths survive today, including the largest one at Saffron Walden, England, which used to have a large tree in the middle of it.

pause

More recently labyrinths have experienced something of a revival. Some believe that walking a labyrinth promotes healing and mindfulness, and there are those who believe in its emotional and physical benefits, which include slower breathing and a restored sense of balance and perspective. This idea has become so popular that labyrinths have been laid into the floors of spas, wellness centres and even prisons in recent years.

A pamphlet at Colorado Children's Hospital informs patients that 'walking a labyrinth can often calm people in the midst of a crisis'. And apparently, it's not only patients who benefit. Many visitors find walking a labyrinth less stressful than sitting in a corridor or waiting room. Some doctors even walk the labyrinth during their breaks. In some hospitals, patients who can't walk can have a paper 'finger labyrinth' brought to their bed. The science behind the theory is a little sketchy, but there are dozens of small-scale studies which support claims about the benefits of labyrinths. For example, one study found that walking a labyrinth provided 'short-term calming, relaxation, and relief from anxiety' for Alzheimer's patients.

So, what is it about labyrinths that makes their appeal so universal? Well …

Homework Practice 1

Today, as part of our series on e-commerce, I'm going to tell you a bit about internet banking, or online banking as it is also known, and how it has developed over the years.

Now, believe it or not, online banking actually began way back in the early 1980s, before we even had the Internet. Anyone who had a computer terminal and a monitor could access the banking system through their phone line. Services were extremely basic, compared to those today. You could view your statements online, and you could also send messages to your bank, but that was about it. If you wanted to transfer money or pay a bill, you had to send written instructions to your branch. Anyway, the first banks to offer this service were in the USA in 1981, and the idea soon caught on in other countries, arriving in the UK in 1983. As you might expect, however, the number of people using these services was very small, probably less than one percent of all account holders, and most of those were businesses.

This all started to change in the 1990s, when the Internet took off. More and more people were buying personal computers and going online, and in 1994 some financial institutions started implementing online banking services through a web browser, like they do today. Of course, many consumers were hesitant to conduct transactions over the Internet. They thought it was unsafe, and not without reason, as the large number of online thefts from that time can testify. As a result, customer numbers remained relatively low. However, two things gradually changed public attitudes. The first was that banks spent a lot of time and money improving security features for their websites. The second was the sudden increase in online stores, er, such as Amazon and eBay. As the idea of paying for items online became widespread, people began to feel more comfortable conducting financial transactions over the Internet.

Suddenly, internet banking really became popular. In 2001, for example, the Bank of America became the first bank to top three million online banking customers, who between them that year made over three million electronic bill payments worth over a billion dollars. By 2012, an estimated 62 percent of account holders in the US and UK were using online banking services. In some countries, Sweden being one example, up to 90 percent of bank customers were doing it. In the same period, a lot of online banks, that is, those banks which only existed on the Internet, came into existence, offering better interest rates and more services.

So what's the attraction? Online banking has many advantages for the customer, of course. They can view their accounts 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, they can pay their utility bills, or most other bills for that matter, transfer money, arrange loans and so on, all without leaving the comfort of their own homes. In fact, with today's smart phones, they don't even need to be at a computer to do all of this. But how do the banks benefit? Well, research has shown that, compared with offline customers, those who use online banking tend to maintain higher balances. They also require less support, by which I mean they ask for help less frequently, which helps banks to cut down on staff. They are also less likely to switch to or use another bank. Interestingly, they're also more likely to recommend their bank to friends and family. Banks which are purely online also have the advantage of not having to maintain the expenses of traditional bank buildings. Things like rent, building maintenance, staff, and so on. Furthermore, banks with a strong regional identity, such as Ulster Bank in Northern Ireland, have been able to use internet banking to expand their customer base beyond their original territory. In other words, you no longer need to live in Northern Ireland to hold an account with them.

Homework Practice 2 (Authentic)

Right, everyone, let's make a start. Over the past few sessions, we've been considering the reasons why some world languages are in decline, and today I'm going to introduce another factor that affects languages, and the speakers of those languages, and that's technology and, in particular, digital technology. In order to illustrate its effect, I'm going to focus on the Icelandic language, which is spoken by around 321,000 people, most of whom live in Iceland - an island in the North Atlantic Ocean.

The problem for this language is not the number of speakers - even though this number is small. Nor is it about losing words to other languages, such as English. In fact, the vocabulary of Icelandic is continually increasing because when speakers need a new word for something, they tend to create one, rather than borrowing from another language. All this makes Icelandic quite a special language - it's changed very little in the past millennium, yet it can handle twenty-first-century concepts related to the use of computers and digital technology. Take, for example, the word for web browser ... this is vafri in Icelandic, which comes from the verb 'to wander'. I can't think of a more appropriate term because that's exactly what you do mentally when you browse the internet. Then there's an Icelandic word for podcast - which is too hard to pronounce! And so on.

Icelandic, then, is alive and growing, but - and it's a big but - young Icelanders spend a great deal of time in the digital world and this world is predominantly English. Think about smartphones. They didn't even exist until comparatively recently, but today young people use them all the time to read books, watch TV or films, play games, listen to music, and so on. Obviously, this is a good thing in many respects because it promotes their bilingual skills, but. the extent of the influence of English in the virtual world is staggering and it's all happening really fast.

For their parents and grandparents, the change is less concerning because they already have their native-speaker skills in Icelandic. But for young speakers - well, the outcome is a little troubling. For example, teachers have found that playground conversations in Icelandic secondary schools can be conducted entirely in English, while teachers of much younger children have reported situations where their classes find it easier to say what is in a picture using English, rather than Icelandic. The very real and worrying consequence of all this is that the young generation in Iceland is at risk of losing its mother tongue.

pause

Of course, this is happening to other European languages too, but while internet companies might be willing to offer, say, French options in their systems, it's much harder for them • justify the expense of doing the same for a language that has a population the size of a French town, such as Nice. The other drawback of Icelandic is the grammar, which is significantly more complex than in most languages. At the moment, the tech giants are simply not interested in tackling this.

So, what is the Icelandic government doing about this? Well, large sums of money are being allocated to a language technology fund that it is hoped will lead to the development of celandic sourced apps and other social media and digital systems, but clearly this is going to be an uphill struggle.

On the positive side, they know that Icelandic is still the official language of education and government. It has survived for well over a thousand years and the experts predict that its future in this nation state is sound and will continue to be so. However, there's no doubt that it's becoming an inevitable second choice in young people's lives.

This raises important questions. When you consider how much of the past is tied up in a language, will young Icelanders lose their sense of their own identity? Another issue that concerns the government of Iceland is this. If children are learning two languages through different routes, neither of which they are fully fluent in, will they be able to express themselves properly?

Lesson 6

Practice 1

So we're talking about astronomy today – the scientific study of outer space – and I'm going to start by saying a bit about telescopes and then move on to look at some key features of amateur astronomy.

Now, one of the most powerful telescopes in the world today is the Hubble Space Telescope, named after Edwin Hubble. And, er, it's become rather symbolic in many ways ... and that's quite appropriate really because, you know, in the early days, it was instruments – and particularly telescopes – that kicked off what was known as the 'scientific revolution'. We tend to think of science in terms of great minds conjuring up big ideas – we think of books – but in the field of science, instruments have always been more important. And of course it was the Italian astronomer Galileo who started us star-gazing. He didn't come up with the world's first telescope, but he was the first scientist to add a lens to his telescope that magnified things in the sky enough to be able to study them. Until this time, scientists had been looking at objects on the Earth, but suddenly the skies held a much greater fascination for people. He said it best when he declared that his telescopes 'revealed the invisible'.

That was in the first part of the 17th century. Photography took longer to come about, so only artists were able to capture the celestial images seen in those days. We had to wait a further nearly 200 years, until 1839, for John William Draper, a chemistry professor, to produce the first recorded Moon photograph, which looks like this – black and white, of course. Since that time, humans have built bigger, better, more powerful telescopes, and what can be seen through these in the present day is, well, truly amazing. Millions of pictures have appeared in magazines, books, on TV and on the Internet. Most professional astronomers don't care if the end result is beautiful, what they really want is research data – that's their main objective – but when the device capturing a distant star or galaxy is the Hubble Space Telescope or a large telescope housed in a mountaintop observatory, the result usually appears spectacular as well. Now, amateur astronomers often have a different objective. Many want nothing more than to capture a scene that will dazzle viewers. They aim to photograph things never seen before, um, like this beautiful solar eclipse that was captured in Greece ... or this incredible image of the Moon with a plane crossing it. But needless to say, they've also made a great contribution to furthering astronomical research, and they do get their photographs and findings published in astronomy journals.

So let's have a look at what the amateurs can contribute. All astronomers are trying to find out, or understand, the origins of the solar system ... how stars formed in the first place, and how the universe itself evolved in such a way. Amateur astronomers have a great deal of specialised knowledge that is highly valued in this regard. For example, they're very familiar with the sky and they know right away when something new appears or when the brightness of an object alters – increases or decreases. They know how to tell the difference between, say, planets and comets or stars, or even artificial satellites – many ordinary people wouldn't have any of these skills. And another vital skill is that they know how to make accurate measurements. Knowing the distance of one object from another or from Earth, for example, is essential information if you want to make a valuable contribution to astrophysics.

So that's what they know. When you look at what they can do to help the professionals ... well, in general, there are two main types of observation that are important. Firstly, they are always watching space; they keep a constant eye on the skies for any new discovery, such as an exploding star that has reached the end of its life and lets off a tremendous amount of energy, or a comet – a very small object made of dust and ice orbiting the Sun. Secondly, they constantly observe the evolution of stars, planets and other celestial features. And the information they gather is essential to our understanding of these objects. It tells us, for example, how stars live and die, and how they interact with neighbouring stars.

In both types of observation, professionals can see advantages in the enormous patience and passion that amateurs have for their hobby. This doesn't just mean spending a whole night looking at the stars. We're talking about observations that involve spending years of evenings on the roof or in the back garden. It's not possible for professional astronomers to undertake these long-term studies or to spend huge amounts of time observing a single object. But amateurs can – and they do – and that's why they are so important to the field of astronomy.

Practice 2 (Authentic)

Scientists believe that a majority of the earth's bird population migrate in some fashion or other. Some travel seasonally for relatively short distances, such as birds that move from their winter habitats in lowlands to mountain tops for the summers. Others, like the Arctic Tern, travel more than 25,000 miles seasonally between the northern and southern poles. Bird migration has been studied over many centuries through a variety of observations.

But until relatively recently, where birds went to in the winter was considered something of a mystery. The lack of modern science and technology led to many theories that we now recognize as error-filled and even somewhat amusing. Take hibernation theory for example - two thousand years ago, it was commonly believed that when birds left an area, they went underwater to hibernate in the seas and oceans. Another theory for the regular appearance and disappearance of birds was that they spent winter hidden in mud till the weather changed and food became abundant again. The theory that some birds hibernate persisted until experiments were done on caged birds in the 1940s which demonstrated that birds have no hibernation instinct.

One of the earliest naturalists and philosophers from ancient Greece was Aristotle who was the first writer to discuss the disappearance and reappearance of some bird species at certain times of year. He developed the theory of transmutation, the seasonal change of one species into another, by observing redstarts and robins. He observed that in the autumn, small birds called 'redstarts' began to lose their feathers, which convinced Aristotle that they changed into robins for the winter, and back into redstarts in the summer. These assumptions are understandable given that this pair of species are similar in shape, but are a classic example of an incorrect interpretation based on correct observations.

The most bizarre theory was put forward by an English amateur scientist, Charles Morton, in the seventeenth century. He wrote a surprisingly well-regarded paper claiming that birds migrate to the moon and back every year. He came to this conclusion as the only logical explanation for the total disappearance of some species.

pause

One of the key moments in the development of migration theory came in 1822 when a white stork was shot in Germany. This particular stork made history because of the long spear in its neck which incredibly had not killed it - everyone immediately realised this spear was definitely not European. It turned out to be a spear from a tribe in Central Africa. This was a truly defining moment in the history of ornithology because it was the first evidence that storks spend their winters in sub-Saharan Africa. You can still see the 'arrow stork' in the Zoological Collection of the University of Rostock in Germany.

People gradually became aware that European birds moved south in autumn and north in summer but didn't know much about it until the practice of catching birds and putting rings on their legs became established. Before this, very little information was available about the actual destinations of particular species and how they travelled there. People speculated that larger birds provided a kind of taxi service for smaller birds by carrying them on their backs. This idea came about because it seemed impossible that small birds weighing only a few grams could fly over vast oceans. This idea was supported by observations of bird behaviour such as the harassment of larger birds by smaller birds.

The development of bird ringing, by a Danish schoolteacher, Hans Christian Cornelius Mortensen, made many discoveries possible. This is still common practice today and relies upon what is known as 'recovery' - this is when ringed birds are found dead in the place they have migrated to, and identified. Huge amounts of data were gathered in the early part of the twentieth century and for the first time in history people understood where birds actually went to in winter. In 1931, an atlas was published showing where the most common species of European birds migrated to. More recent theories about bird migration …

Homework Practice 1

As we inch closer to the reality of sending astronauts to more remote areas of our universe, with the proposed Mars mission receiving particular attention, I'd like today to look at some potential problems we may face living and travelling in deep space.

Now, you've probably all heard of the ISS, the International Space Station, but you may not know exactly what goes on there. The ISS is the world's first permanent orbiting research facility, and its main purpose is to perform the sort of scientific research that can only be carried out in space. Among other tests, the astronauts and scientists on board take part in medical experiments on themselves to determine how human bone and tissue is affected by living in a low or zero gravity atmosphere for long periods of time. And this raises one of the biggest problems of space travel - its effects on the human body. And you probably won't be surprised to hear they've found out that space travel can affect us in several ways physiologically, especially over extended time periods.

Let's start with its effect on the cardiovascular system. Now, living on Earth, we are affected by gravity because for two-thirds of the day we are standing or sitting. Because of this, body fluids such as blood pool in the lower part of the body. The human body is equipped with various mechanisms to oppose gravity to maintain sufficient blood flow to the brain. However, in an environment where there is minimal gravity, often called a micro-gravity environment, the quantity and distribution of body fluid alters, since it is free of the gravitational effect. This is known as 'fluid shift. Its symptoms include a blocked nose, headache and a puffy face often known as 'moon face. Similar to what you might experience during a heavy cold, in fact. This can also lead to space sickness. If you've ever been on a ship in stormy weather, you've probably experienced something similar. A few minutes or a few hours after entering weightlessness, astronauts experience headaches, nausea and a strong feeling of lethargy. About a half of all astronauts experience these symptoms, but they're short-term, and usually wear off after a few days.

This, unfortunately, is more than can be said for the effects that space travel has on the skeletal structure. Bones, of course, contain calcium and phosphorous, er, there are about 1,200 grams of calcium and 450 grams of phosphorous in the average human body. The problem with space travel is that once gravitational stress is removed, the body starts losing calcium at an alarming rate. In fact, after ten days of weightlessness, the body loses about 3.2% of its bone content, and then about 2% for every subsequent month spent in zero gravity, This weakens bones, which greatly increases the risk of fractures. The good news, however, is that it's possible to take countermeasures to minimise calcium loss. Basically, this involves getting plenty of exercise, which is why space stations are equipped with things like treadmills and exercise bikes. Incidentally, this also helps retain muscle strength. You don't use your muscles much in space, so they tend to weaken rapidly.

The biggest problem, though, is that of cosmic radiation, and this is the one that scientists are really struggling to mitigate. Cosmic radiation consists of fast-moving elementary particles, er, protons, electrons and stripped-down atomic nuclei.

Nobody is certain where many of these come from, but there are theories that they originate in black holes or quasars, that is, distant galaxies producing large amounts of energy. When these particles hit human beings, they pass right through them, seriously damaging their DNA as they do so. On Earth, a magnetic field shields humans, deflecting the radiation before it can penetrate to the Earth's surface. However, without this shield, astronauts are exposed to dangerous levels of these high-velocity particles, and the further they go, the more they are exposed to them. The symptoms would be particularly unpleasant, with cancers, cataracts and brain damage heading the list of a whole range of medical conditions caused by radiation poisoning.

OK, so much for health. Now, let's consider the logistical problems of...

Homework Practice 2 (Authentic)

Hello everyone. Today we're going to look at another natural food product and that's maple syrup. What is this exactly? Well, maple syrup looks rather like clear honey, but it's not made by bees; it's produced from the plant fluid - or sap - inside the maple tree and that makes maple syrup a very natural product. Maple syrup is a thick, golden, sweet-tasting liquid that can be bought in bottles or jars and poured onto food such as waffles and ice cream or used in the baking of cakes and pastries. It contains no preservatives or added ingredients, and it provides a healthy alternative to refined sugar.

Let's just talk a bit about the maple tree itself, which is where maple syrup comes from. So, there are many species of maple tree, and they'll grow without fertilizer in areas where there's plenty of moisture in the soil. However, they'll only do this if another important criterion is fulfilled, which is that they must have full or partial sun exposure during the day and very cool nights - and I'll talk more about that in a minute. There are only certain parts of the world that provide all these conditions: one is Canada, and by that, I mean all parts of Canada, and the other is the north-eastern states of North America. In these areas, the climate suits the trees perfectly. In fact, Canada produces over two-thirds of the world's maple syrup, which is why the five-pointed maple leaf is a Canadian symbol and has featured on the flag since 1964.

So how did maple syrup production begin? Well, long before Europeans settled in these parts of the world, the indigenous communities had started producing maple sugar. They bored holes in the trunks of maple trees and used containers made of tree bark to collect the liquid sap as it poured out. As they were unable to keep the liquid for any length of time - they didn't have storage facilities in those days - they boiled the liquid by placing pieces of rock that had become scorching hot from the sun into the sap. They did this until it turned into sugar, and they were then able to use this to sweeten their food and drinks. Since that time, improvements have been made to the process, but it has changed very little overall.

pause

So let's look at the production of maple syrup today. Clearly, the maple forests are a valuable resource in many Canadian and North American communities. The trees have to be well looked after and they cannot be used to make syrup until the trunks reach a diameter of around 25 centimetres. This can take anything up to 40 years. As l've already mentioned, maple trees need the right conditions to grow and also to produce sap. Why is this? Well, what happens is that during a cold night, the tree absorbs water from the soil, and that rises through the tree's vascular system. But then in the warmer daytime, the change in temperature causes the water to be pushed back down to the bottom of the tree. This continual movement - up and down - leads to the formation of the sap needed for maple syrup production.

When the tree is ready, it can be tapped and this involves drilling a small hole into the trunk and inserting a tube into it that ends in a bucket. The trees can often take several taps, though the workers take care not to cause any damage to the healthy growth of the tree itself. The sap that comes out of the trees consists of 98 percent water and 2 percent sugar and other nutrients. It has to be boiled so that much of that water evaporates, and this process has to take place immediately, using what are called evaporators. These are basically. extremely large pans - the sap is poured into these, a fire is built and the pans are then heated until the sap boils. As it does this, the water evaporates, and the syrup begins to form. The evaporation process creates large quantities of steam, and the sap becomes thicker and denser, and, at just the right moment, when the sap is thick enough to be called maple syrup, the worker removes it from the heat. After this process, something called 'sugar sand' has to be filtered out as this builds up during the boiling and gives the syrup a cloudy appearance and a slightly gritty taste. Once this has been done, the syrup is ready to be packaged so that it can be used for a whole variety of products. It takes 40 litres of sap to produce one litre of maple syrup so you can get an idea of how much is needed!

So that's the basic process. In places like Quebec where…